Taxonomy
(sometimes called "systematics") is the science of
classifying organisms. The Linnean system of classification,
used for both plants and animals, was developed more than
two centuries ago by the great Swedish botanist Carolus
Linnaeus (born Carl von Linné). It is a hierarchical
system -- that is, each organism belongs to a series of
ranked taxonomic categories, such as a subspecies, species,
genus, family, etc. At any rank (level) in the hierarchy any
organism can belong to only one taxon, or taxonomic group.
For instance, the Yellow-rumped Warbler can be a member of
only one genus and one class. Each taxon is given a formal,
latinized name that is recognized by scientists around the
world. Nomenclature is a formal system of names used to
label taxonomic groups. Birds compose the class
Aves, which is in the phylum Chordata (Chordata also
includes mammals, reptiles, fishes, and tunicates --
everything with an internal skeletal rod called a
"notochord," which in vertebrates is enclosed in cartilage
or within a backbone). The living (nonfossil) members of the
class Aves are placed into more than two dozen orders, such
as the Passeriformes (perching birds), Piciformes
(woodpeckers, etc.), Columbiformes (pigeons and doves),
Procellariiformes (albatrosses, petrels, etc.), Apodiformes
(swifts and hummingbirds), and so on. The orders are divided
into about 160 families -- an average 6-7 families per
order. Family names can be recognized because they all end
in "idae." For example, in the order Passeriformes are such
families as the Tyrannidae (the tyrant flycatchers), the
Laniidae (the shrikes), and the Emberizidae, a large family
that includes, among others, the wood warblers, sparrows,
blackbirds, and orioles. Families, in turn, are
divided into subfamilies, with names ending in "inae." The
wood warblers make up the subfamily Parulinae and the
black-birds and orioles are the Icterinae. Within
subfamilies, tribes (name ending "ini") are often
recognized: blackbirds are the Agelaiini and orioles the
Icterini within the Icterinae. The next commonly used
category is the genus: the Yellow-rumped Warbler is in the
genus Dendroica, along with more than two dozen very similar
species. Its latinized specific name is Dendroica coronata,
made up of the name of the genus combined with a trivial
name to distinguish it from congeners (other members of the
same genus). Because the Linnean system
features a two-part specific name, it is often referred to
as a system of "binomial nomenclature." Often, as in this
book, the name of the author who first described and named
the species in the scientific literature is added to the
specific name -- thus, Dendroica coronata (Linnaeus).
Traditionally, generic and specific names are set in italic
type, and in some works the name of the author is put in
parentheses if he or she originally placed the species in a
different genus. Thus if you find the Yellow-rumped Warbler
listed as Dendroica coronata (Linnaeus), it is because
Linnaeus originally placed it in the genus Motacilla, not
Dendroica. We have not followed this procedure, since most
bird species have long since been moved from their original
genera as the taxonomic system has been refined. Finally, subspecies may be
recognized with trinomial nomenclature -- by adding a third
name to the specific name. Thus the eastern Yellow-rumped
Warbler (formerly the Myrtle Warbler) is Dendroica coronata
coronata Linnaeus, and the western Yellow-rumped Warbler
(formerly Audubon's Warbler) is Dendroica coronata auduboni
Townsend. The taxonomic-nomenclatural
system is a device for communicating about the complexly
interrelated products of evolution. Generally it works well,
even though many aspects of it are arbitrary. For example,
whether Dendroica is distinct enough to be recognized as a
full genus, or should be merged with Vermivora and Parula is
not self-evident, and ornithological taxonomists disagree on
it. Some taxonomists are "lumpers" and would like to combine
the three; others are "splitters" and wish to keep them
separate. Furthermore, as new studies of the relationships
of various higher categories are published, scientists must
modify the taxonomic system, and as a result names of
taxonomic groups may change, as may the organisms included
in them. For example, recent DNA-DNA hybridization studies
have led some scientists to conclude that the Emberizidae
should be considered a subfamily (Emberizinae) of the family
Fringillidae, the wood warblers a tribe (Parulini) of that
subfamily, and both the orioles and blackbirds combined in
yet another emberizine tribe, Icterini, with the tribal name
Agelaiini disappearing. Changes in latinized
specific names are inevitable as knowledge about birds
increases, and most should simply be accepted as the price
of progress. Common names, at least within North America,
show more stability and facilitate regional communication.
But for worldwide communication, the level on which
professional ornithologists often operate, the latinized
names are essential. One need only note that the "robin" in
North America is Turdus migratorius, while in England it is
Erithacus rubicula (which, in turn, is "roodborst" in
Holland, "rotkehlchen" in Germany, "rödhake" in
Switzerland, and "rougegorge" in France). An American
birdwatcher told by a traveling friend returning from Europe
that she had added the "Ring Ousel" and "Blackbird" to her
life list might be left pretty much in the dark. But if the
American knew that those birds were Turdus torquatus and
Turdus merula, he or she would at least know that both were
sizable thrushes. SEE: Species
and Speciation;
Birds,
DNA, and Evolutionary
Convergence;
Passerines
and Songbirds;
Superspecies;
Sibling
Species. Copyright
® 1988 by Paul R. Ehrlich, David S. Dobkin, and Darryl
Wheye.