Complex Instruction:
Equity in Cooperative
Learning Classrooms
Elizabeth
G. Cohen, Rachel A. Lotan,
Beth A. Scarloss, Adele R. Arellano
Many educators
view cooperative learning as an alternative to tracking and ability grouping
and as an appropriate and promising strategy for academically and
linguistically heterogeneous classrooms. When students work in small groups,
they talk and work together and serve as resources for one another. Students
who do not read at grade level or who are not proficient in the language of
instruction gain greater access to understanding the assignment and therefore
have more opportunities to participate in the group’s interactions. However, cooperative learning also poses a serious
instructional dilemma when it creates situations in which students who are
academically low achieving or who are social isolates are excluded from the
interactions. Thus, rather than increasing equity, cooperative learning also has
the potential to reinforce a severe educational and social problem.
In this paper,
we focus on two dimensions of equity when considering student learning in small
groups: access and equitable relations. First we ask: Do students who do not
read at grade level or who are not proficient in the language of instruction
have opportunities to use the instructional materials and complete the group
activities? Do other group members prevent them from examining, or manipulating
these materials? Second, we ask: How can the teacher ensure that all group
members are active and influential participants and that their opinions matter
to their fellow-students?
Complex
Instruction (CI) is an instructional approach that allows educators to address
these questions successfully. In CI, teachers use cooperative groupwork to
teach at a high academic level in diverse classrooms. They assign open-ended,
interdependent group tasks and organize the classroom to maximize student
interaction. In their small groups, students serve as academic and linguistic
resources for one another. When implementing CI, teachers pay particular
attention to unequal participation of students and employ strategies to address
such status problems. The theoretical and empirical knowledge base of complex
instruction is the result of many years of programmatic research in
heterogeneous classrooms at the elementary and at the middle school levels (See
Cohen& Lotan, 1997).
Complex Instruction in Action[1]
“ Immigration -
many of us know about it first hand,”
says Ms. Garcia. “Yesterday, Victor spoke about his parents who
immigrated to the US from Mexico. After living in a refugee camp in Thailand
for two years, Kim’s family immigrated here from Vietnam. Almost everyone in
this classroom has family or friends who have moved from one country to
another. Families or individuals have different reasons for moving, and they
all have a different story to tell.”
The group of
seventh graders at Yosemite Middle School in California’s Central Valley is
listening attentively. Ms. Garcia is talking about something close to their own
experiences. “Why do people move?” she continues.
“Studying the movement of people and the reasons behind it is central to
the study of history. We will explore this question in the unit[2]
we begin today. Group One will listen to corridos
to understand why some people moved here from Mexico. Listen carefully to the
songs and the lyrics and discuss the questions on your activity card. When you
write your own song, make sure you include the emotions people might feel when
they decide to leave their home countries. Group Four will analyze the drawings
made by children who witnessed the war in El Salvador. What colors are the
children using and why? What is the message of these drawings? The group with
the task about Guatemala, be particularly careful with that beautiful huipil. I borrowed it from a friend.
Look at the patterns and the designs. Think about what they might express.”
The students
seem anxious to start. But Ms. Garcia wants to keep them focused for just a few
more moments: You need to organize
yourselves and be productive. During the wrap-up, you will present your
products and explain them to the class. Let me remind you that for these
activities you need many different abilities. You will read, write, and draw.
You need to be able to analyze visuals and interpret songs. Finally, you will
need to be creative and have the ability to visualize and build a three
dimensional sculpture. Remember: No one of us has all these abilities, but each
one of us has some of the abilities we will use today. Listen carefully to one
another; you all are important resources for your group. You have thirty five
minutes. Check the role chart. You know what to do.”
On this cue, the
students turn to each other and begin to organize themselves. After checking
the role chart, they put on their role badges. The Materials Managers scurry about the classroom, picking up folders
containing the activity card and the resource materials: audio tapes, colorful
photos, maps or charts. They grab some stuff from the "materials
area": markers, scissors, glue, colored paper, yarn, and other interesting
looking items.
As they settle
into examining their materials, students focus on the reasons for immigration
to the US from a particular Latin American country. They discuss how political
persecution, economic hardship, personal ambitions, and professional
opportunities result in decisions to emigrate. They also consider the heavy
costs of moving: breaking up families, leaving the only home people have ever
known, and having to adjust to a new place.
In the group by
the window, two boys and two girls listen intently to a corrido, a Mexican folk song. Swaying to the music and tapping
their fingers, they follow the lyrics of the song, printed on the resource
card.
"This guy
sure got around. Traveled to lots of places all over the country. It must have
been fun, " says Carolina.
"I’d rather
stay home and not have to wash dishes all day," Hector remarks.
Later, the
students negotiate what details to include in their group project, a song
reflecting why some Mexicans would move to the US.
"Let’s use
a tune we all know," suggests Veronica.
"O.K., but
what will the song be about?" asks Hector. The group members fall silent
for a moment. Carolina, Recorder for
the day, takes out a piece of paper and a pencil.
"Why don’t
we use some of the ideas from the song we heard," Carolina suggests.
"How about if we make it about Jose, who wants to come to Hollywood to be
a movie star?" Veronica and Hector nod their heads in agreement. Victor,
the fourth member of the group, shrugs his shoulder, looks away, and, as usual,
mumbles something quietly. "I'm sure this guy didn't have too much fun.
Sounds to me like he worked really hard. He fixed the rails and picked tomatoes
and mixed cement. For only fifty cents an hour! I'd be tired and
disappointed." Carolina begins to write what she has decided will be the
first line of their song. Ms. Garcia, who has been watching the group from a
discreet distance, interjects:
"Victor,"
she says, "You listened to the song carefully and you clearly understood
the deep message of the lyrics. This is important information for your group.
What do you think your group's song should be about?"
"I'm not
sure," Victor answers hesitantly, "I just know that my family didn’t
come here because they wanted to be movie stars. They came because there were
no jobs in Mexico. My father says he wanted to work so we could have a better
life. “
"Maybe we
can put these ideas in our song." Veronica is ready to compromise. As they
offer examples of how they might do this, Ms. Garcia moves away, now reassured
that Victor’s contribution will be heard by his group.
In the group across
the room, Michael reads a letter out loud to the others. The letter is from a
father to his son, a Salvadorian refugee, who managed to escape to the US. As
they listen to the somber account of armed soldiers storming a house, they
examine children’s drawings included in the activity. Michael, the Facilitator, paraphrases the question on
the activity card: "What do you see in these drawings and how do they make
you feel?"
"They make
me feel sad," says Jennifer. "These children saw horrible things happen
to their families and their friends."
"Yeah,"
agrees Alma, "Look at how they drew pictures of the soldiers murdering
everyone, even little kids. It makes me feel bad. And angry. But I am also glad some people got away."
"But they
drew pretty flowers and trees too," Sui Li adds, "That shows how much
they loved their homes even though the war was destroying them."
By this time,
members of the group in the front of the classroom have read about the extreme
poverty and political strife in Haiti and about the Tonton Macoutes. The
students are getting ready to work on their group product: a tap-tap bus,
decorated with a message about reasons for leaving Haiti. Sergio and Manuel cut
out the bottom of paper cups to make the wheels, and Maria and Devon carefully
cover a shoe box with white paper.
"Let’s not
forget to show how the Tonton Macoutes are beating people," Manuel reminds
his group.
Ms. Garcia is
pleased as she looks over her classroom. The students are talking and working
together; they are engaged and interested. They all make an effort to
understand and contribute to their group’s product. For their homework
assignment, students will complete the individual reports and write about the
discussion in their groups. Tomorrow and the next day the groups rotate so that
each group will get to do two more tasks. Ms. Garcia is looking forward to her
students writing thoughtful essays and clearly answering the questions on next
week’s test.
Achievement Results in Complex Instruction Classrooms
What do students
learn in a setting like the one just described? Cohen et al. (Cohen and Lotan,
1997, Chapter 10) present a detailed summary of student achievement in CI. They
report results from two data sets collected in social studies classrooms (from
356 seventh graders and 344 eighth graders), in five middle schools in the San
Francisco Bay Area, between 1991 and 1993. These data include test results from
classrooms that used curricula specially designed for CI and aligned with the
California social studies framework as well as test results from comparison
classrooms where teachers did not use CI but covered the same topics.
The tests
reflected the academic content of the units. They contained factual items and
analogies which used simple language but required abstract thinking. For
example, one question from the unit called "How Do Historians Know about
the Crusades?" is:
The way the
Muslims felt after the Crusaders captured Jerusalem was like the way you would
feel after
a. winning the
lottery; b. not getting invited to a
party; c. catching a cold; d. having
your home robbed of all its valuables.
Students in the
CI classes gained significantly more than students in comparison classes on
questions requiring higher-order thinking, as in the example above. Students in
CI and comparison classrooms did not differ on items requiring factual recall.
We found that
the different ways in which teachers implemented the program were powerful
predictors of posttest scores. For example, the number of activities and
individual reports that students completed had a favorable effect on the
post-test scores. Furthermore, management problems in some classrooms
interfered with learning gains. From this we concluded that it is necessary for
teachers to give students time to experience all of the activities of a unit
and that severe management problems should be addressed.
These results
replicate findings from the elementary school. For example, in elementary
schools classrooms, students who had experienced a bilingual mathematics and
science curriculum (Finding Out/ Descubrimiento) improved their scores on the Comprehensive
Test of Basic Skills (CTBS) as much as 25 percentiles. Gains averaged
approximately 20 percentiles across the three mathematics subscales:
computation, application, and total math. Students with lower pretest scores
and bilingual students showed excellent gains as did gifted students and those
from magnet schools.
Group Tasks for Complex Instruction
To foster
conceptual understanding of content material, the group activities of a complex
instruction unit are organized around a
central concept or a big idea of the discipline. Students encounter this
concept or idea in different contexts, and thus have multiple opportunities to
grapple with the material. For instance, students in Ms. Garcia's class rotated
through different group activities each addressing the complexities of human
migration: not only economic hardship, and political persecution, but also the
potential for a better life, and hope for the future. Student learning went
well beyond the facts and dates of modern migration; indeed, students learned
how a combination of factors shape people's experiences and lead them to move,
or to stay. Studying this question in the context of migration from Latin
America, prepares students both to ask and to respond thoughtfully to similar
issues wherever they encounter them.
CI learning
tasks are inherently uncertain and
open-ended both in their solution and in the process by which students
arrive at that solution. Students discuss issues that are open to interpretation,
that have no one right answer, and their discussion decides the direction of
their group product. The task on Haiti used in Ms. Garcia's class has a
virtually unlimited number of legitimate "messages" for the students
to express with their tap-tap bus. In
each activity, the groups not only decide what to include, but also how to
structure their product to best reflect their country.
Open-ended and
inherently uncertain tasks increase the need for interaction since they force
students to draw upon each other's expertise and repertoire of problem-solving
strategies. Given the intellectual heterogeneity of the students in the group,
these repertoires are rich and varied. Teachers encourage students to explore
alternative solutions, to communicate their thoughts effectively, to justify
their arguments, and to examine issues from different perspectives. These are
the processes that contribute to the development of higher-order thinking.
All of the
hustle and bustle of a class engaged in group work increases the need for
students to depend on each other.
Students must discuss complex content material, design and prepare their group
product, report to the class, and teach others what they have learned --- all
within a very short time period. They must
depend on one another to get the job done. Additionally, students who do not
understand English depend on bilingual group members while students who cannot
comprehend the activity card or resource cards depend on others for assistance.
Students learn that they have the duty to assist those who ask for help. While
the tasks are interdependent, students are also held accountable individually. They must complete an individual report
about their work in the group.
Multiple-ability tasks are a necessary condition
for teachers to be able to convince their students that there are different
ways to be "smart." Students who do not excel at paper-pencil tasks
often do excel when academic content is presented in different ways. Tasks that
require multiple abilities give teachers the opportunity to give credit to such
students for their academic and intellectual accomplishments. For example,
students examine texts, drawings, artifacts, cartoons, music and art to make
sense of events. The task with the Mexican corridos
requires different intellectual abilities:
creating melodies and rhythmic patterns, and analyzing the relationships
between a song's melody, lyrics, mood, and purpose. Other activities require
understanding sophisticated texts, detecting sources of bias, empathizing,
relating a single textual passage to a larger scheme of events, and translating
the message of a text into nonverbal forms.
Status Problems and Treatment
The open-ended
and uncertain nature of the curriculum, and the incorporation of multiple
ability and interdependent group tasks will not, by themselves, provide access
and equitable relations for all students.
Some students come to the tasks with higher status than others; these
students talk more and, as a result, learn more (See Cohen & Lotan, 1997,
Chapter 5). This is an instructional
dilemma inherent in groupwork, a problem rooted in the students’ perceptions of
themselves and others.
Expectation
states theory (Berger, Cohen, & Zelditch, 1972) describes how status
characteristics come to affect interaction and influence in group
situations. A status characteristic is
an agreed-upon social ranking where everyone feels that it is better to have a
high rank than a low rank. Status
characteristics may be diffuse, based upon general social distinctions such as
race and gender; or they may be specific, based upon perceived ability relevant
to a specific task, such as reading ability.
In addition to diffuse and specific status characteristics, local status
characteristics such as peer and academic status have a powerful effect on
interaction in the classroom (Cohen & Lotan, 1997, Chapter 5). Contrary to common assumptions, the power of
peer and academic status means that students of color are not necessarily the
low-status students.
According to the
theory, status characteristics become the basis for the group’s expectations
for competence for its members: low expectations for low-status students, and
high expectations for high-status students.
These expectations for competence are held by teachers, by classmates
and by the students themselves.
Students who lack traditional academic skills or proficiency in the
language of instruction or who are social isolates, are often perceived as
low-status students. They barely participate, are often ignored, and frequently
are not given a share of the materials or a turn at the activity. Students who
are expected to be good at school or are popular talk more, have greater access
to materials, and are more influential in group discussions. These behaviors are
all indicators of status problems (Cohen, 1994).
In the vignette
above, Victor is an example of a low-status group member. Because no one
expected him to be competent, the group members did not ask his opinion or try
to find out what he said. Thus, without Ms. Garcia's intervention, the result
would have been a self-fulfilling prophecy: His initial low status would have
resulted in the group's perceiving him as incompetent on the task.
Status problems
can lead to learning problems. Research
has shown that the rate of interaction in the group is a strong predictor of
learning gains (Cohen, Lotan & Leechor, 1989). As high status students interact more in the group, they learn
more from the task; as low-status students interact less, they in turn learn less
(Cohen, 1984). Paradoxically, in
cooperative learning designed to promote equity, unless the teacher intervenes
to equalize rates of participation, the rich get richer, and the gap in
academic achievement widens. Complex instruction offers two strategies to treat
status problems in the classroom: (a)
the multiple-abilities treatment and (b) assigning competence to low-status
students.
The Multiple-Abilities Treatment
One way to
minimize the problem of unequal access and learning for low-status students is
to broaden the conception of what it means to be “smart.” The multiple-abilities treatment is grounded
in the teacher’s public recognition of a wealth of intellectual abilities that
are relevant and valued in the classroom and in daily life.
Recall how Ms.
Garcia talked about the different abilities needed in her classroom. She
reminded students of the many types of abilities that would have a direct
impact on the quality of their products. She set the stage for showing her
students, with concrete examples based on their own accomplishments, that there
are many ways to excel in the classroom.
Rather than
assuming that all students can be ranked along a single dimension of
intelligence, the multiple abilities treatment highlights specific skills and
abilities that students need for their particular tasks. Each student will have different strengths
and weaknesses among these multiple abilities.
For example, the highly verbal student may have difficulty with tasks
that require spatial and visual competence.
Likewise, the student who scores poorly on a vocabulary test may be an
astute scientific observer. This view
of ability is compatible with work in psychology that suggests intelligence is
multidimensional (Gardner, 1983; Sternberg, 1985).
A
multiple-abilities treatment typically occurs during orientation to the day’s
work in groups. Like other CI teachers,
Ms. Garcia starts by naming the different skills and abilities necessary for
successful completion of an activity and then explains the relevance of these
abilities to the task. An effective
multiple-abilities treatment convinces students that the task in which they are
about to engage is fundamentally different from traditional classroom tasks
because it relies on many different kinds of intellectual abilities.
The next step in
the treatment is to create a mixed set of expectations for each student. It is
essential that each student perceives that he or she will be strong on some of
the abilities and weaker on others. Ms Garcia created a mixed set of
expectations when she said explicitly:
“Remember: No one of us has all these abilities, but each one of us has
some of the abilities we will need today. Listen carefully to one another; you
all are important resources for your group.”
This step cannot be omitted in a successful treatment. Herein lies a
central premise of complex instruction: Each individual brings valuable and
different abilities to the task. All contributions are needed for success.
Assigning Competence to Low-Status Students
Unfortunately,
the status order in the classroom is deeply ingrained. While research has shown that a multiple
abilities orientation can help to equalize interaction between high- and
low-status students (Cohen, Lotan, & Catanzarite, 1988), a second treatment
shows even stronger potential to boost the participation of low-status
students.
Assigning
competence is a public statement that
specifically recognizes the intellectual contribution a student has made to the
group task. Teachers can assign competence to any student but it is especially
important and effective to focus attention on low-status students.
Assigning
competence is a positive evaluation. It relies on the teacher’s power as a
legitimate source of evaluation as students are likely to believe the teacher’s
opinion. To change not only the student’s expectations for competence, but also
to raise the group’s expectations for that student, competence must be assigned
publicly, so that both the student and the classmates hear it. Thus when Ms. Garcia intervened in Victor's
group, she specifically pointed out his expertise. Assigning competence must be
specific so that the student and the group know exactly what he or she did
well. Finally, it must make the intellectual
ability demonstrated by the student relevant
to the work of the group.
Cohen &
Lotan (1997, Chapter 6) review evidence for the effectiveness of status
treatments in the elementary and middle school classroom. In a study of 13
elementary schools, Cohen and Lotan found that status interventions boosted the
participation of low-status students, while not suppressing the contributions
of high-status students. These positive effects occurred despite the low
overall frequency of teacher’s use of status treatments.
In the middle
school, it was much more difficult to measure the effect of interventions. At
this level, status differences present a more complicated scenario. Students
develop their own sources of status such as peer popularity that may be quite
independent of academic status. This complexity made it difficult to measure
the effects of teachers' treatments independent of the severity of status
problems that existed before the teacher intervened.
Conclusion
Creating
equitable classrooms is imperative, though no easy task. We have found that it
requires changing the organization of the classroom, the roles of teacher and
student, and the nature of the curriculum. Above and beyond these far-reaching
changes, an equitable classroom requires deliberate interventions to produce
equal-status relationships within the groups. Failing this last step will mean
that some students will not have equal access to learning. Current rhetoric
speaks of schools where all students can learn. Complex instruction tries to
make those words a reality.
References
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& Zelditch, M. Jr. (1972). Status characteristics and social interaction. American Sociological
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Cohen, E.G. (1984).Talking
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Cohen, E.G. (1994). Designing
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classrooms. Revised edition. New York: Teachers College Press.
Cohen, E.G. & Lotan,
R.A. (Eds.). (1997). Working for equity in heterogeneous classrooms:
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New York: Teachers College Press.
Cohen, E. G.,. Lotan, R.,
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Sternberg, R.J. (1985).Beyond
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[1] To present the readers with a vivid description of Complex Instruction, we created this vignette. It is a compilation of activities witnessed and conversations overheard in various middle school classrooms. Names of persons and places are fictional.